Nutrition, Carbohydrates

A. Leturque , E. Brot-Laroche , in Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences, 2014

Consumption Patterns

Primitive nomadic peoples subsisted on meat and milk-based diets providing protein and fatty as principal sources of free energy. The domestication of plants with starch-rich seeds, such as wheat, rice, and corn, allowed humans to settle communities with an assured supply of nutrient, which was the basis of civilisation. A diet containing 80% of the energy from starch was the norm up to the twentieth century in industrialized countries and is still typical in developing countries. Today, in industrialized nations, but 50% of daily energy intake comes from carbohydrates.

The types of carbohydrates in the diet have also inverse over the years in the industrialized countries. Intake of starch, circuitous carbohydrates, from foods such as potatoes, bread, and legumes has declined about fifty% over the twentieth century, while the intake of uncomplicated sugars has increased. Since the early 1960s, the consumption of simple sugars has farther increased due to a greater use of sweeteners in processed foods (e.grand., baked appurtenances, breakfast cereals, ketchup, canned fruit) and the consumption of HFCS in beverages (e.g., sodas, fruit juices) (http://chartsbin.com/view/1162). Xylitol and sorbitol are used in chewing glue and candy. These sweeteners are considered to be noncariogenic considering they do not promote bacterial growth including cariogenic leaner. They are non calorie complimentary since they may be digested and absorbed slightly differently from other carbohydrates, but they provide virtually the same amount of calories per unit of weight. Sorbitol intake over 50 yard twenty-four hour period−ane has a laxative event.

Carbohydrates can be fabricated in the body from other compounds. However, a diet with petty or no carbohydrates often is perceived as extremely unappetizing, and adaptation to such a diet is associated with fatigue, headaches, and lack of well-being. This blazon of diet is recommended in certain genetic diseases (run into below). National guidelines for a healthier diet in the Usa and in Eu encourage a higher intake of carbohydrates, peculiarly as complex carbohydrates, and a lower intake of elementary sugars.

Afterwards the ingestion of glucose or table saccharide, blood glucose concentration immediately increases. The response to circuitous carbohydrates is slower and varies for unlike starches. Indeed, the glucose and insulin responses to carbohydrate consumed as potatoes are greater than the aforementioned amount of carbohydrate consumed equally rice. Furthermore, the glucose response to apple juice is greater than for apple sauce, which in turn is greater than for a raw, unpeeled apple, reflecting the difference in rate of digestion and assimilation due to fibers. The rising in blood glucose promoted by carbohydrate-rich food is not directly linked to simple or circuitous saccharide content, indeed many other factors including physical entrapment, association with fiber, fat, protein, organic acid, salts, processing of food, and physiological state of the subject area influence sugar absorption rates. Information technology is estimated by glycemic alphabetize (GI) (Foster-Powell et al., 2002). GI of foods uses a scale from 0 to 100. GI of 100 is given to the area under ii-h blood glucose bend in response to 50 g of glucose. Portions of 50 m of carbohydrates contained in desserts, candies, bread, breakfast cereals, rice, and tater products have a high GI (>70) and in fruits, nonstarchy vegetables, dairy, and basics a low GI (<55) (http://world wide web.glycemicindex.com/foodSearch.php).

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Halophytes and Saline Vegetation of Afghanistan, a Potential Rich Source for People

Siegmar-W. Breckle , in Halophytes for Nutrient Security in Dry Lands, 2016

4.4 Discussion

For centuries nomadic people in Transitional islamic state of afghanistan have used summertime pastures in the mountains but semi-deserts, including saline flats, in the lowlands during winter. The continental winter rain climate favors this traditional state-use. In winter, salinity decreases and ephemerals germinate and are a rich source for provender (and fuel).

Biotic factors like grazing certainly are influencing the distribution of halophytes in saline habitats (Ungar, 1998), and grazing and overgrazing can be observed in all regions of Afghanistan. From Europe it is reported that herbivory may both increase and subtract species richness in table salt marshes (Adam, 1990; Bakker and de Vries, 1992). Both mowing and grazing was found to cause a change in the relative cover of species and species composition of communities on salt marshes in the Netherlands (Bakker, 1978). Whether this is also the case in semi-deserts and saline flats in Afghanistan is not articulate. Grazing causes gaps to open in the salt marsh vegetation and allows both annuals and perennials from the low marsh to establish on the college marsh. The salinity content of the soil decreased more in the control area than in the grazed and mowed areas (Bakker and Ruyter, 1981).

Jerling and Andersson (1982) reported that cattle were selective in their grazing of species in a Baltic seashore meadow. Selective herbivory by feral horses is too suggested to be a significant factor in determining the competitive success of grasses Spartina alterniflora and Distichlis spicata in Maryland salt marshes (Furbish and Albano, 1994). This is certainly the case also with sheep and goat grazing, as well as past the camels of Afghan nomadic people; the present vegetation in many parts, also as in saline flats, is spiny, poisonous or by other ways well-nigh unpalatable afterward the long selective grazing and overgrazing history in Afghanistan.

Grazing favors halophytes on less saline sites. Heavily grazed table salt marshes of northern Germany (x sheep ha−ane) were dominated by the perennial grass Puccinellia maritima and annuals Suaeda maritima and Salicornia europaea (Kiehl et al., 1996). Two perennial species, Halimione portulacoides and Aster tripolium, became rare on these marshes when they were exposed to heavy grazing. After iv years without grazing, the cover of Festuca rubra, A. tripolium, and H. portulacoides increased, and cover of Plantago maritima, Suaeda depressa, and S. europaea decreased. Kiehl et al. (1996) concluded that grazing acquired an upward shift of zonation boundaries betwixt lower-, mid-, and upper-table salt marsh vegetation. Increased salinity and soil compaction, considering of grazing and trampling, opened upwardly the college areas of the marshes in Germany and holland for invasion by lower marsh species (Bakker, 1985; Kiehl et al., 1996). Gaps produced in marsh vegetation by grazing animals were the almost pregnant factor determining the establishment of almanac species since the more than competitive perennial and less halophytic species were absent (Jensen, 1985; Ellison, 1987; Gibson and Brown, 1991; Bakker and de Vries, 1992; Kiehl et al., 1996).

Grasses are the main potential fodder crops for saline soils, as Gulzar et al. (2007) pointed out. Some of the most productive species yield similar biomasses equally conventional crops on seawater irrigation—this was checked with Salicornia bigelovii. They may outperform conventional crops in yield and water use efficiency at lower salinities, as was claimed by Glenn et al. (1999).

The lack of fuel in many villages in Afghanistan, even more with the nomadic people, forces the use of all kinds of found material for fuel. Saxaul wood is very famous for its value and good burning quality for kebab stoves.

The use of the rich ash of halophytes (potash) for lather production or other purposes is not all the same reported only in former times was observed past u.s.. In villages oven ash is regularly used also as a fertilizer in gardens.

Medicinal plants take long been studied in Afghanistan. Aitchison (1890) gave a long list of the uses of various plants. Volk (1955, 1961) and Pelt et al. (1965) listed all known medicinal plants and drugs from the bazaars, comprising only a few halophytes. From their lists our observations are complemented (see Table iv.2). Many plant species are rich in secondary compounds. They are ofttimes used for distinct medicinal purposes. The potential of halophytes in this respect has only started to be studied (Buhmann and Papenbrock, 2013), however, it tin can be deducted from other phytochemical properties which are often taxon-specific. Information technology needs suitable weather condition for cultivation. As well practiced agricultural fields, unremarkably only moderate- or low-salinity sites can be used to start such halophyte cultivations (Dagar et al., 2011). It will demand more detailed cultivation field experiments to promote a suitable and sustainable utilization of halophytic crop plants (Debez et al., 2011).

Table 4.2. Halophytic Plant Species of Afghanistan

Species Establish Family Halophyte Blazon Known Uses, Applications
Ephedra strobilacea Ephedraceae P u, m
Amaranthus albus Amaranthaceae P f
Apium graveolens Apiaceae P k, due south
Artemisia maritima Aster family P u, south
Epilasia hemilasia Sunflower family P x
Pulicaria arabica Asteraceae P x
Saussurea salsa Asteraceae E 10
Sonchus maritimus Aster family P f
Taraxacum bessarabicum Asteraceae P f
Heliotropium arguzioides Boraginaceae E x
Heliotropium dasycarpum Boraginaceae Eastward x
Crambe kotschyana Brassicaceae P f
Hornungia procumbens Brassicaceae P x
Lepidium cartilagineum Brassicaceae E southward
Lepidium perfoliatum Brassicaceae P f
Silene vulgaris Caryophyllaceae P f
Spergularia marina Caryophyllaceae East x
Spergularia media Caryophyllaceae E x
Anabasis setifera Chenopodiaceae P f, u
Atriplex dimorphostegia Chenopodiaceae P, (R) f
Atriplex leucoclada Chenopodiaceae P, (R) f
Bassia eriophora Chenopodiaceae P f
Bienertia cycloptera Chenopodiaceae E f, u
Camphorosma monspeliaca Chenopodiaceae P f, u
Caroxylon nitrarium Chenopodiaceae Eastward f, u
Caroxylon scleranthum Chenopodiaceae Due east f, u
Climacoptera lanata Chenopodiaceae East ten
Climacoptera longipistillata Chenopodiaceae East x
Climacoptera longistylosa Chenopodiaceae Due east x
Climacoptera turcomanica Chenopodiaceae E ten
Cornulaca monacantha Chenopodiaceae Due east f, u
Gamanthus commixtus Chenopodiaceae Due east 10
Gamanthus gamocarpus Chenopodiaceae E x
Halimocnemis mollissima Chenopodiaceae E f
Halocharis hispida Chenopodiaceae P x
Halocharis sulphurea Chenopodiaceae P x
Halocharis violacea Chenopodiaceae P x
Halocnemum strobilacea Chenopodiaceae E f, u
Halogeton glomeratus Chenopodiaceae E x
Halostachys belangeriana Chenopodiaceae E f, u
Haloxylon ammodendron Chenopodiaceae P f, u
Haloxylon salicornicum Chenopodiaceae E f, u
Kali tragus Chenopodiaceae E f, u, south
Kalidium caspicum Chenopodiaceae E f, u
Kaviria tomentosa Chenopodiaceae Eastward f, u
Oxybasis rubra Chenopodiaceae Eastward f
Petrosimonia sibirica Chenopodiaceae Eastward f
Salicornia perennans etc. (Effigy 4.viii) Chenopodiaceae E f, d
Salsola rosmarinus Chenopodiaceae P f, u
Spinacia turkestanica Chenopodiaceae P f, u, d
Several Suaeda-species Chenopodiaceae E f, u
Xylosalsola richteri Chenopodiaceae P f, u
Cressa cretica Convolvulaceae E, R x
Prosopis farcta Fabaceae P f, u
Alhagi maurorum Fabaceae P f, u
Halimodendron halodendron Fabaceae P f, u
Medicago sativa Fabaceae P f
Melilotus indicus Fabaceae P f, u
Trifolium fragiferum Fabaceae P f
Frankenia pulverulenta Frankeniaceae E, R f, u
Centaurium pulchellum Gentianaceae P m
Plantago coronopus Plantaginaceae P x
Plantago maritima ssp. salsa Plantaginaceae P x
Limonium reniforme Plumbaginaceae E, R 10
Polygonum aviculare Polygonaceae P f, m
Portulaca oleracea Portulacaceae P f, d
Glaux maritima Primulaceae East, R x
Ranunculus sceleratus Ranunculaceae P m
Potentilla anserina Rosaceae P f, thousand
Populus euphratica Salicaceae P u, f
Populus pruinosa Salicaceae P u, f
Reaumuria halophila Tamaricaceae East, R f, u
Tamarix hispida Tamaricaceae E, R u, f
Tamarix ramosissima Tamaricaceae East, R u, f
Tamarix sp. (Figure four.4) Tamaricaceae P, R u
Nitraria schoberi Zygophyllaceae E, R f, u
Fagonia bruguieri Zygophyllaceae P f
Peganum harmala (Figure 4.7) Zygophyllaceae P m, f
Tribulus terrestris Zygophyllaceae P f
Zygophyllum eurypterum Zygophyllaceae P f, u
Bolboschoenus maritimus Cyperaceae P, (H) f
Cyperus fuscus Cyperaceae P f
Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae P f, d
Schoenoplectus litoralis Cyperaceae P, (H) f
Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani Cyperaceae P, (H) f
Scirpoides holoschoenus Cyperaceae P, (H) f
Juncus gerardii Juncaceae P, (H) 10
Aeluropus lagopoides Poaceae Eastward, R x
Aeluropus littoralis Poaceae Due east, R x
Aeluropus macrostachyus Poaceae E, R 10
Crypsis aculeata Poaceae E 10
Crypsis schoenoides Poaceae Eastward ten
Desmostachya bipinnata Poaceae P f
Phragmites australis Poaceae P, (H) f, u
Puccinellia distans Poaceae P, R f
Zannichellia palustris Potamogetonaceae P, H x

Approximate indicator values for salinity (run across Breckle, 1985, Ellenberg et al., 1991) are S=vii–ix in E, 3–half dozen in P, but in P also ecotypes are known with less than South=3.

Halophyte types: E, Euhalophyte; P, Pseudohalophyte; H, Hydrophyte; R, Salt-recreting halophyte.

Known uses: grand, medicinal plants; f, fodder; u, fuel; d, food; southward, spice; x, no use known still.

It is known that C. sativa ssp. indica, the source of marihuana, is slightly or moderately table salt-tolerant and as a ruderal institute is dependent on a skillful nitrogen supply. Papaver somniferum, the source of opium, is more drought-, simply less table salt-tolerant than Cannabis. Neither is suitable for salinized sites. For a sound economy both of these drug plants should exist replaced by adept greenbacks crop plants. Under special weather the melioration of abased saline soils can be accomplished with valuable crops like Glycyrrhiza glabra, suitable for licorice production, every bit was shown by Khushiev et al. (2005) in north Kazakhstan, other halophytic crops out of 587 halophytic species in People's republic of china are discussed by Kefu et al. (2002, 2011) and past Ksouri et al. (2012) for nutrient, medical, and nutraceutical applications. The listing of medicinal plants used in the Tajik and Afghan Pamirs, given by Kassam et al. (2010) and the treatise by Shawe (2007), does not incorporate whatever real halophytes, except Amaranthus and P. harmala, which are known every bit pseudo-halophytes from some moderately saline sites. The herbal drug and the seeds of P. harmala (Effigy 4.viii) are widely used in Central Asia. In Transitional islamic state of afghanistan the seeds (ispand) are used not merely as an anthelminticum, but besides confronting headache, rheuma, lumbago, and besides dizziness (Volk, 1955). It is a very traditional drug with ritual applications, for example, against bad mood and the evil eye together with talismans.

Past far the greatest potential of the rich Afghan halophytic flora is to exist seen in their rich biodiversity. Nature conservation started rather early on when the state was a kingdom, partly to serve as hunting grounds. UN officials raised detailed plans for diverse national parks and reserves, including sebkha areas (Petocz and Larsson, 1977). Withal, a functioning nature protection system is still lacking, due to the war situation and the historical unrest over recent decades. A few national parks have been established however, and a long list of future reserves is proposed (Breckle and Rafiqpoor, 2010), including Dasht-e Nawor or Hamun-e Puzak.

Desertification in arid regions is a mutual threat. Overexploitation and overgrazing have not stopped at sebkha areas, and additionally a huge office of agricultural land has become saline due to wrong irrigation practices and the poor quality of irrigation water. Rehabilitation of degraded saline flats is merely possible past using suitable halophytic institute species for phytomelioration. It is a costly process, but in the long run it can pb to better conditions (Breckle, 1982, 1990, 2002a; Norman et al., 2013). One hit example is the huge saline seafloor of the former Aral sea, at present called the Aralkum (Breckle et al., 2001; Breckle, 2013; Breckle and Wucherer, 2011; Wucherer et al., 2011). Saxaul (H. aphyllum) has been shown in big recultivation areas to be suitable, on moderately saline soils, to regenerate quickly and to embrace solonchak soil if furrows are used where sand is blown in. In onetime times in the deserts of Afghanistan saxaul and other chenopod shrubs (S. arbuscula, Halostachys caspica, Halothamnus subaphyllus, Due south. rosmarinus) were certainly more abundant, but they take been overexploited for centuries. These should be used for afforestment, peculiarly on saline sites. Saxaul wood can be used for fuel after merely a few years of growth. On very saline sites, even with salt crusts, H. strobilaceum is useful for phytomelioration, however, reproduction by cuttings is not as successful as with saxaul (Breckle et al., 2011).

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Asia, Inner: Scripts

Yard.A. Thompson , in Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (2nd Edition), 2006

Khitan and Jurchen (Chinggeltei, 2002)

The Khitans, a nomadic people of Manchuria who announced to have spoken an early on Mongolic linguistic communication, were unified in 907 and expanded to rule the Inner Asian steppes and North China south to the Yellowish River by the 950s ( Mote, 1999: 56–69). Their land, the Liao, cruel to their onetime subjects the Jurchens between 1113 and 1125, though a member of the Khitan imperial family unit escaped to establish a state in Central Asia, Kara Khitai ('Black/Great Khitans') or Western Liao, that lasted from 1131 to 1211 (205–206). The Jin (Chinese for 'gold') state of the Jurchens, a sedentary people of northeastern Manchuria who spoke an early course of Manchu, ruled North China until their destruction past the Mongols betwixt 1213 and 1234. Abaoji, the Liao founder, ordered the cosmos of a Khitan script in 920, the Khitan large script; this was succeeded in 925 by the Khitan small script. Post-obit the example of the Khitans, the Jin founder Aguda ordered the creation of the Jurchen big script in 1120, supplemented past the Jurchen small script in 1138. Surviving Khitan texts are sparse and nigh exclusively consist of memorial inscriptions from the Liao land (very few documents in Khitan script survive from the Western Liao); the Jurchens banned the diplomatic and administrative utilise of Khitan script in 1191 and archival materials from before this date appear non to have survived (219). While relatively few Jurchen texts have survived, their language is much ameliorate known than Khitan considering Chinese dictionaries of Jurchen and other languages for use by translators and interpreters accept survived (the Ming Hua-Yi yiyu, surviving in several manuscripts; the vocabularies from the Bureau of Translators list Jurchen characters, while those from the Bureau of Interpreters list only Jurchen pronunciations in Chinese transcription). Although Jurchen script was little used after the end of the Jin dynasty, texts survive from equally tardily as c. 1550; its utilise was finally banned in 1658 past the Qing dynasty (Kane, 1989: ten).

Khitan and Jurchen texts were collected and studied by Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Soviet scholars in the first one-half of the 20th century (particularly Luo Fucheng, Wang Qingju, and Li Dingkui), who made some progress in the decipherment of Khitan script by comparing identical elements of Khitan inscriptions and their Chinese paraphrases, such as names, official titles, and dates; this allowed the identification of some Khitan numerals, animal names, and other words. Real progress in deciphering Khitan script started in 1975 with the foundation of the Khitan Script Inquiry Group of the PRC (principally Chinggeltei, Liu Fengzhu, Chen Naixiong, Yu Baolin, and Xing Fuli). By systematic comparison of the phonetic representation of Chinese names and titles in Khitan texts and from there working out the readings of native words, the readings have been determined for about 208 of 378 known pocket-sized-script characters and the meanings of over 300 large-script characters (Chinggeltei, 2002: 100–113). Jurchen script was first studied in the W by Wilhelm Grube (1896), with scholarly interest picking upward a one-half-century later. Pregnant piece of work on Jurchen has been done by Chinggeltei and his colleagues, Jin Qicong, and Daoerji and Hexige (Dorji and Kheshig), with important reconstructions of Jurchen by Kiyose Gisaburo (1977) and Daniel Kane (1989), the latter concerned with spoken Jurchen. The discovery in 1979 of a manuscript dating from shortly afterwards the cosmos of the script (the Nüzhen zishu) has allowed the development of the script to be traced (Kane, 1989: 8).

Khitan and Jurchen scripts look much alike and operate along the same principles. The large scripts were entirely logographic, while the small scripts included phonetic characters. The script was oriented similar Chinese; in Khitan, small-script phonetic characters within a word are arranged horizontally in pairs, with the pairs arranged vertically to make triangular or oblong units of as many as seven characters, while Jurchen small-scale-script characters are written sequentially. Every bit Jurchen script developed, information technology became increasingly phonetic (roughly syllabic); multisyllabic roots written earlier with 1 logographic character came to be written with all but the offset syllable written phonetically, rather like the modern Japanese system of kanji and hiragana, except that the script makes no rigid distinction between logographic and phonetic characters (Kane, 1989: 28–30). It is unclear whether Khitan script showed a like evolution (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Examples of Khitan and Jurchen scripts.

 (Chinggeltei 107; Kane 21-nine)

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Historical background

A.Y. Tamime , R.K. Robinson , in Tamime and Robinson'due south Yoghurt (Third Edition), 2007

1.2 Evolution of the process

The production of milk in the Centre East has always been seasonal, existence restricted usually to no more than a few months of the yr. The master reason for this limited availability of milk is that intensive brute product has never actually existed, and so that, as in early history, farming is in the hands of nomadic peoples who move from one area to another post-obit the pastures. This type of existence forces nomads to be in the wilderness for months at a time, far away from populated cities and villages where they could sell their animal produce. Some other major cistron is that the Middle Eastward has a subtropical climate and summer temperatures tin can accomplish as high as twoscore °C. In such a climate, milk turns sour and coagulates within a short time of milking, particularly as the milk is produced under primitive conditions. Thus, the animals are mitt milked, no cooling of the milk is possible, and the risk of contamination past microorganisms from the air, the animal or the hands of the milker is extremely high. Under these conditions the possibility of transporting or fifty-fifty keeping milk for any length of time is not-existent. Every bit a event, the bulk of the population consume milk only rarely, and even the nomadic people accept to utilise the milk virtually as it is produced.

However, it may well have been evident even at an early stage that the souring of milk was by no means a compatible process. Thus, the fermentation brought nearly by non-lactic acid leaner gives rise to a product that is insipid and stale and, furthermore, the coagulum is irregular, filled with gas holes and shows extreme whey syneresis. Lactic acid leaner, nonetheless, act on milk to produce a fermented product that is pleasant to eat or drinkable; this latter production was usually referred to as sour milk.

The animals that are raised past the nomadic peoples of the Center E are cows, goats, sheep and camels, and gradually the tribes evolved a fermentation process which brought under control the souring of these various milks. In detail, the process might have included:

•

utilize of the same vessels, or the addition of fresh milk to an ongoing fermentation, relying mainly on the indigenous microflora to sour the milk

•

heating the milk over an open burn down to concentrate the milk slightly, so that the final coagulum would larn an attractive viscosity due to the modified backdrop of the casein – over again a modify that would have improved the quality of the end product

•

seeding the rut-treated and cooled milk (blood or ambience temperature) with sour milk from a previous batch, and then enabling the thermophilic strains of lactic acid bacteria to become predominant

•

gradual selection of lactic acid leaner capable of tolerating high levels of lactic acid and of giving the production its distinctive season

•

eradication of any pathogenic microorganisms present in the milk.

Although the evolution of the process was strictly intuitive, the product of sour milk shortly became the established pattern of preservation and, since the early 1900s, defined microorganisms have been used to ready these products on a large scale in factories. Gradually other communities learnt of this simple preservative handling for milk and one such production became known equally yoghurt from the Turkish word 'jugurt'; numerous variants of this word have appeared over the years and a selection is shown in Table i.1.

Table ane.i. Selection of yoghurt and yoghurt-like products that have been identified in the Middle East and elsewhere

Traditional name Country
Jugurt/eyran/ayran Turkey
Busa Turkestan
Kissel mleka/naja/yaourt Balkans
Urgotnic Balkan mountains
Leban/laban or laban rayeb Lebanon and some Arab countries
Zabady/zabade Egypt and Sudan
Mast/dough/doogh Iran and Transitional islamic state of afghanistan
Roba/rob Republic of iraq
Dahi/dadhi/dahee Bharat
Mazun/matzoon, matsun, matsoni, madzoon Armenia
Katyk Transcaucasia
Yiaourti Greece
Cieddu Italian republic
Mezzoradu Sicily
Gioddu Sardinia
Tarho/taho Hungary
Viili Finland
Filmjolk/fillbunke/filbunk/surmelk/taettemjolk/tettemelk Scandinavia
Iogurte Brazil and Portugal
Skyr Iceland
Gruzovina Yugoslavia
Donskaya/varenetes/kurugna/ryzenka/guslyanka Russia
Tarag Mongolia
Shosim/sho/thara Nepal
Yoghurt/yogurt/yaort/yourt/yaourti/yahourth/yogur/ Rest of the world
Yoghurt/yogurt/yaort/yourt/yaourti/yahourth/yogur/yaghourt Remainder of the world ('Y' is replaced by 'J' in some cases)

Later on: Tamime and Deeth (1980), Accolas et al. (1978), Tokita et al. (1982) and Kosikowski and Mistry (1997).

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Past-PRODUCTS | Hides and Skins

H.W. Ockerman , L. Basu , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Introduction

Humans have utilized animal skins throughout recorded history, and nomadic people however utilize them for shelter, clothing, weapons, and food containers. In spite of contest from constructed materials, many quality items still demand the wearing ability, moisture–vapor transfer, and insulating properties of leather.

Animal hide is a very meaning proportion (iv–12%) of the live weight of an animal (Tabular array ane) and is one of the most valuable past-products that can be converted into a multifariousness of items. A few examples are shown in Tabular array 2. Other uses of beast skin include food, cosmetics, and medical prosthetics.

Table 1. Hide yield weights and yields every bit a pct of animals' live weights

Type of brute Range of hibernate yield (lbs) Percentage of live weight (%)
Cattle v.i–5.8 Average 7.0
Average using hide stripper 4.0–half-dozen.0 Average decrease of 2% or 5%
Herford eight.5
Angus 7.v
Shorthorn six.5
Charolais, bull, 15 months onetime eight.5
Charolais, bull, 20 months onetime 8.3
Charolais, bull, xxx months old 6.7
Proficient stear 6.6–7.6
Poor stear 6.4–7.8
Good heifer 5.one–7.nine
Branded cow 6.half-dozen–7.seven
Canner, cutter 5.7–6.8
Bull vi.7–7.5
Bologna bull seven.0–eight.1
Sheep
Sheep and lamb (wool+skin) xi.0–11.7
Swine
Pig, vertical drum skinner iii.0–8.0
Boar 10.0–12.0

Source: Reproduced from Bengtsson, O., Holmqvist, O., 1984. By-products from slaughtering. Fleischwirtschaft 64 (3), 334–336; Guess, M.D., Salm, C.P., Okos, R.Chiliad., 1978. Pig Skinning Versus Scalding. Arlington, VA: AMI Foundation, pp. 155–164; Lawrie, R., 1981. Development in Meat Scientific discipline – ii. London: Engineering science Publishers; Minnoch, J.K., Minnoch, R.M., 1979. Hides and Skins. Ithaca, NY: National Hide Association; Romans, J.R., Ziegler, P.T., 1974. The Meat Nosotros Eat. Danville, IL: Interstate; and Ockerman, H.W., Hansen, C.L., 2000. Animal By-Production Processing and Utilization. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Co.

Table 2. Examples of some cured and tanned uses of hides, skins, or pelts and their past-products

Portion of hibernate, skin, or pelt Examples of finished products
Cattle hide by-products
Cured and tanned hides Sole, upper, linings and heels for leather shoes, rawhide, numberless, athletic equipment, belting, upholstery, harness, saddles, etc.
Corium layer Picking bands, textile shuttle holders and passers, reconstituted collagen sausage, casings, cosmetics products, and collagen products
Tail hair Paint brushes and upholstery padding (no longer used much)
Trunk hair Felting, plaster retardant, etc.
Inside of ear hair Faux camel hair brushes
Hide trimmings Tankage, fertilizer, glue, and inedible gelatin
Hide fat Tallow
Calf skin Lite-weight leather, fabric trimmings, drumheads, gloves, etc.
Sus scrofa skin by-products
Pig skin Gloves, belts, razor straps, shoe uppers, inner-soles, upholstery, shoe counters, sausage, pork rinds, edible gelatin, glue, etc.
Trimmings Dog chews
Hair Upholstery padding (not used much anymore), felting, and plaster retardant
Bristles Brushes
Sheep pelt, past-products
Wool Blankets, gloves, clothing, carpets, upholstery fabric, lanolin, etc.
Slats (skin after wool or fleece is removed) Shoe and slipper uppers and lining, hat sweat bands, fancy shoes, gloves, garments, sporting goods, chamois, book bindings, diplomas, etc.
Hair sheep Small pneumatics, diaphragms, and bellows
Pelts (wool or fleece left on) and trimmings Heavy glaze material, moutons, shearlings, glue, and tankage
Horse hide past-products
Cured and tanned hides Shoe sole and uppers, gloves, sporting appurtenances, luggage, belts, harness, saddles, etc.
Domesticated state and h2o buffalo hibernate by-products
Cured and tanned hides Shoe sole and uppers, fancy leather appurtenances, luggage, handbags, and buffing wheels
Goat and child
Cured and tanned hides Shoe uppers and linings, gloves, fancy leather, handbags, and book bindings
Deer and elk hide by-products
Cured and tanned hides Shoe uppers, clothing, gloves, moccasins, and mukluks
Kangaroo hide by-products
Cured and tanned hides Shoe uppers, diaphragms, and bellows
Exotic and fancy leathers
Aquatic group Frog, seal, shark, walrus, and turtle leather
Land group Camel, elephant, ostrich, emu, rabbit, and pangolin leather
Reptile grouping Alligator, crocodile, lizard, and snake leather

Source: Adapted from Clemen, R.A., 1927. By-products in the Packing Industry. Chicago, IL: Academy of Chicago Press; Ockerman, H.W., 1996. Chemistry of Meat Tissue. Columbus, OH: Department of Animal Scientific discipline; Tanners' Quango of America, 1983. Lexicon of Leather Terminology. Washington, DC: Tanners Council of America; Leather Industries of America Enquiry Laboratories, 1991. Dictionary of Leather Terminology. Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati; and Ockerman, H.Due west., Hansen, C.50., 2000. Animate being Past-Product Processing and Utilization. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Co.

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Book i

G.Thousand. Wani , in Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (Third Edition), 2016

Meat and Fiber

Most goats (65%) are institute in arid and semiarid areas. The people who rear goats in these situations are either landless or wandering laborers with their unemployed families. These nomadic people require goats which can withstand water deprivation for days and which can digest depression-quality fodder during their long migrations. Breeds such as the Bedouin of Africa, Khagani of Pakistan, Bakarwal of Kashmir and Cashmere (Pashmina) of Mongolia can accept in large amounts of water when information technology becomes bachelor with no adverse effects on the rumen. The direction objective nether these situations is mostly meat or cobweb, milk and other byproducts being secondary.

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Nomads/Nomadism in History

F. Scholz , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

2 Debatable 'Stage Theories'?

Pohlhausen (1954 , pp. 153, 167) still believed that pastoral nomadism started around AD 950 and that evidence existed of its monocentrist origin. But fifty-fifty the extensive ethnoarcheological studies of the past decades take failed to plant when and where nomadic peoples kickoff appeared. The emergence of nomadism a—significant consequence in social history—may well have been due to 'the herder of the steppe and oasis farmer having broken away from his agriculturalist brother' (Wissmann 1961, p. 28). According to Lattimore (1940) this, or a similar process, may take occurred at the Inner Asian frontier, the marginal region between settled agronomics (practised by the Chinese) and nonsedentary livestock-keeping (practised by the Mongols). Indeed, it could have occurred anywhere inside the Old Earth dry belt (Fig. i).

Plausible concepts of the origin of nomadism have sought to convey diverse (three-) phase theories of cultural and economic history (Vajda 1968). While fugitive a lengthy give-and-take of such explanations—which have largely outlived their relevance—mention should at least be made of Adam Smith (1723–ninety) and Friedrich List (1789–1846). In his comments on the evolution of 'productive forces' in agriculture, List (1961, p. 57) expressed the stance that, in genetic terms, the nomad represents a preliminary stage before the agriculturalist. This view prevailed from the nineteenth century upward to late in the twentieth century and believed to exist able to locate the centre of origin of nomadism in the Altai region. This theory may seem logical at first sight, but in the end it does non fit the facts and has been considered refuted since Hahn (1891, p. 487) postulated that mixed farming was the prerequisite for the origin of nomadism.

More complex theories of origin were developed past, among others, Pohlhausen (1954) or Dittmer (1965), who believed the predecessors of pastoral nomadism (Hirtennomadismus) to have been alpine/mountain nomadism arising from plough agriculture and subsequently, transhumance and cowherding (Küherwirtschaft). By contrast, Bobek (1959, p. 272) sees nomadism every bit a branch of clan farming (Sippenbauerntum) and relates this development 'on the i hand to the availability of extensive pasturelands that are only suitable for seasonal use and not actually for permanent settlement and, on the other, to the dual economic interests of mixed farmers,' who are able 'to change their style of subsistence relatively hands and quickly by shifting the emphasis from tillage to animal husbandry and vice versa.' Basically similar ideas are put forrard past Vajda (1968), special mention being made of the formulation of a repeated alternation between nomadic and farming life as a result of natural catastrophes, armed conflicts, and economic setbacks. According to de Planhol (1975) the abiding demographic surplus of the nomads substantially contributes to this situation.

These different views are plausible, merely by no means imperative, in terms of fourth dimension and space. The processes they describe could have happened anywhere and at any time, even long before the first written references (fourth millennium) to nomads.

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DAIRY ANIMALS | Horse

Thou. Doreau , W. Martin-Rosset , in Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, 2002

Introduction

It is thought that 30 1000000 people throughout the world potable equus caballus milk more than or less regularly. Equus caballus milk consumption is an ancient exercise, which was mentioned by Homer in the Iliad . The traditional use of mare milk for human consumption was beginning past nomadic people, then for therapeutic utilize in the countries where it was produced; it is now retailed as different de luxe products in some economically developed countries. The milking routine is specific, attributable to the physiological particularities of the mare. Milk composition will be compared to moo-cow milk every bit a reference, and also to man milk, because equus caballus milk composition is frequently considered to be close to that of homo milk. The different uses of horse milk, whether raw or fermented every bit kumys, will be reviewed in this commodity.

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Volume 1

Yard. Doreau , Westward. Martin-Rosset , in Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (Third Edition), 2011

Introduction

It is thought that 30 1000000 people throughout the world drink horse milk more than or less regularly. Equus caballus milk consumption is a very ancient practice, which was mentioned by Homer in the Iliad . The traditional use of mare milk for human being consumption, first past nomadic people, and then for therapeutic uses in the area of production, is now completed past different luxe products in some economically developed countries. Also horses, asses were likewise milked for a few years. The milking routine is very specific, due to physiological particularities in mares. Equine milk composition will exist compared to cow'southward milk equally a reference and to human milk considering the composition of horse milk is often considered to be very close to that of human milk. The dissimilar uses of horse milk, raw or fermented as koumiss, are reviewed.

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